Hallucinogen
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A hallucinogen is a drug or chemical substance that alters an individual’s perception and sense of reality, causing him or her to hallucinate. Psychoactive substances classified under hallucinogens are also referred to as hallucinogenic drugs, psychedelic drugs, dissociative drugs, or deliriant drugs. Alpha-methyltryptamine (AMT), dimethyltryptamine (DMT), dextromethorphan (DXM), 5-methoxy-diisopropyltryptamine (5-MeO-DIPT or “Foxy”), ibogaine, ketamine, mescaline, MDMA (ecstasy), d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), phencyclidine (PCP), and psilocybin are hallucinogens.
Hallucinogenic drugs induce mind-altering experiences affecting visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, and/or tactile sensory perceptions, and sometimes may even be perceived through the nociceptive or proprioceptive senses. Hallucinogenic compounds are derived from certain plants, mushrooms, or their extracts, but some can be synthetically produced. Nearly all hallucinogens contain nitrogen and are classified as alkaloids. Several hallucinogens have chemical structures parallel to the structure of such natural neurotransmitters as acetylcholine, catecholamine, or serotonin. When consumed, hallucinogenic substances are believed to temporarily interfere with the brain’s neurotransmission activity or bind to neurotransmitter receptor sites, allowing psychedelic effects to occur.
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History
Hallucinogens have been used for centuries—mostly in religious ceremonies, healing rituals, worship, mystical insight, or battle—but they have widely been abused since their introduction to the pharmaceutical field as psychiatric medication, sedatives, or suppressants. More than 6,000 species of plants or mushrooms have been discovered that contain hallucinogenic compounds; anthropologists have found that some of these plants were used in ancient rituals and ceremonies. Peyote is possibly the oldest hallucinogen used by mankind; it is believed to be utilized by civilizations from more than 5,000 years ago. Historically, users exploit these mind-altering substances for thrill-seeking purposes and risk-taking endeavors, as hallucinogens provide some addicts with a mechanism for escape from reality by distorting their perceptions and moods, allowing them to momentarily escape their emotional or psychological deficiencies.
Psychadelics
A psychedelic drug produce hallucinations, distort perception, alter states of awareness, and can imitate states of psychosis. Psychedelic drugs include LSD, mescalin, psilocybin, MDMA, DMT, DOB, 2C-B, tryptamines, phenethylamines, and chemicals that affect the 5-HT2A receptor.
LSD
LSD is a semisynthetic substance from the grain fungus ergot (Claviceps purpurea) that particularly grows on rye. It was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann in 1938 at the Sandoz Corporation pharmaceutical laboratory. Hofmann was attempting to identify a therapeutic compound from the ergot fungus. He called the 25th molecule he isolated from the fungus Lyserg-Säure-Diäthylamid, or LSD-25. In 1943, Hofmann discovered LSD’s psychedelic properties when he accidentally ingested the substance while studying its effectiveness for treating headaches. Hofmann experienced a psychedelic hallucination as a result. By 1947, Sandoz Corporation marketed LSD as a psychiatric drug.
In the U.S., LSD was scientifically investigated for its possible uses in treating mental illness. After World War II, the U.S. government—namely the CIA, the U.S. Army, and the Department of Defense—began experimenting with the potencies of several hallucinogens, especially LSD, for their potential purposes in chemical warfare, torture, and interrogation by testing the substances on unwitting government employees, military personnel, doctors, and common citizens. The program was secretly formed in response to theories that the Soviet Union was stocking up the world’s collection of LSD, and lasted throughout the 1950s, 60s, and 70s. The scientific benefit of the CIA’s covert experiments remained inconclusive, and the program was brought to light to the general public by 1977. In 1973, all records of the operation were ordered to be destroyed by CIA director Richard Helms, so post-investigations have been unfulfilled.
During the 1950s, LSD was classified as a psychedelic compound, and quickly became a popular illicit street drug during the 1960s despite its dangerous side effects. The growing level of LSD abuse in the U.S. prompted the 1970 ban on the manufacturing, distribution, and possession of LSD under the Controlled Substances Act, which classified LSD as a Schedule I substance. Abuse of LSD had waned in the U.S. by the late 1970s, but again escalated during the 1990s. LSD abuse, especially among adolescents 12 years or older, had peaked in 1996. Since then, LSD use has gradually declined.
Peyote
Peyote, or lophophora williamsii, is a small, spineless cactus native to northern and central Mexico and the southwestern U.S. and has historically been used in aboriginal American religious ceremonies and medicinal practice. Archeological evidence has discovered the existence of peyote and its mescaline alkaloid used in native North American rituals as many as 5,700 years ago. Peyote was used by several early civilizations including the Caddo, Carrizo, Comanche, Cora, Huichol, Karankawa, Kiowa, Lipan Apache, Mescalero Apache, Oglala Lakota, Tarahumara, Tepecano, Tepehuan, Tonkawa, and Yankton Sioux tribes; some of these tribes still in existence continue using peyote for its spiritual purposes today.
From the 1890s through the 1930s, the U.S. state and federal governments made several attempts to restrict the use of peyote, particularly targeting Native American tribes and their religious rituals. The Indian Prohibition Law took effect in 1897, which banned the use of certain intoxicants in native tribes yet excluded peyote; this Indian appropriation bill was followed by further petitions by community leaders, church groups, government officials, and sometimes the Bureau of Indian Affairs and other American Indian organizations until the late 1930s. State legislation prohibiting peyote passed in 1917 in Utah, Nevada, and Colorado, but federal prohibition never passed despite consecutive legislation.
In 1918, Oklahoma peyote users established the Native American Church, forming an official religious organization in which the group would be free to practice their religious rituals and ceremonies; this church has recognition across state lines. Mounting state legislation against peyote was enacted in response, but the states still had no legal jurisdiction over reservations and their religious rituals. Peyote users were met with constant persecution by several groups. In 1934, the Bureau of Indian Affairs recognized the American Indian tribes’ right to religious freedom, giving rest to peyote users who had long fought for their rights in court. However, attitudes toward peyote users changed little. Challenges to this law continued until the 1960s, but by 1990, use of peyote was honored only within Native American religious ceremonies—this was made federal law by 1996. The debate continues, but it currently stands that Native American religious use of peyote is federally protected while individual states have the right to ban peyote. Peyote is otherwise classified as a Schedule I substance under the U.S. Controlled Substances Act.
Mescaline
Mescaline is a naturally occurring psychedelic alkaloid and is the most active hallucinogenic compound in peyote; it can also be synthetically produced. Mescaline was first extracted from peyote and identified by German pharmacologist Arthur Heffter in 1896, becoming the first recognized isolated hallucinogenic compound. It was first synthesized in 1919 by Austrian chemist Ernst Späth. Its recreational use among the general public became popular during the 1960s counterculture movement, but mescaline was not in high demand compared to LSD or PCP. Mescaline powder is almost indistinguishable from these two hallucinogens, and LSD is considered to have a remarkably higher potency than mescaline. In 1970, mescaline became classified as a Schedule I substance under the U.S. Controlled Substances Act, and follows the same legislation as peyote throughout U.S. federal history.
Dissociatives
Hallucinogens known as dissociative drugs produce a feeling of detachment so that the user is not fully aware of their consciousness. PCP, ketamine, and DMX are classified as dissociative drugs.
DXM
DXM is an antitussive substance used mainly in over-the-counter cough suppressants and cold medications. When consumed in excess, DXM produces hallucinogenic effects similar to ketamine or PCP. Since its synthesis in 1958, DXM medications have appeared in liquid, capsule, spray, and lozenge form, all of which have been recreationally abused. Attempts to hinder abuse by the general public include removing DXM pill forms from over-the-counter accessibility to prescription-based medications only, or banning the manufacturing of DXM pills altogether. Most cough syrups can still be obtained without a prescription.
PCP
PCP was developed in the 1950s and marketed as an intravenous surgical anesthetic in 1957. Because it induces a sedative, trance-like anesthetic effect with highly adverse effects, it was discontinued as a human anesthetic by 1965. PCP became a Schedule II substance under the 1970 U.S. Controlled Substances Act. It was only approved for use as a veterinary anesthetic, but this too became banned in 1978 when all PCP production became illegal in the U.S. PCP in pill form quickly became an illicit street drug during the 1960s, but it gained a reputation of producing dangerous and unpredictable side effects which outweighed the benefit of the high, including hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, acute agitation, sensory distortions, mood disturbances, mania, and dependency. By the 1970s, PCP in powder form became popular since it could be snorted or combined with other substances such as marijuana and then smoked for a faster high. Since the 1980s, illicit use of PCP has declined and is not a commonly abused substance. However, PCP is often mixed with other low-quality substances and unwittingly sold to substance abusers. It remains legal in some countries outside the U.S. as an anesthetic.
Deliriants
Deliriant drugs (anticholinergics) are a branch of dissociatives that produce a temporary state of disorientation and waning consciousness caused by intoxication, shock, or hyperpyrexia. Abuse of deliriants is characterized by anxiety, hallucinations, delusions, confusion, and incoherent speech. Such substances as the belladonna alkaloids—the solanaceae plants datura, deadly nightshade, henbane, mandrake, and nutmeg—as well as such pharmaceutical drugs as antiemetics (dimenhydrinate [Dramamine, Gravol]), antihistamines (diphenhydramine [Benadryl]), doxylamine, and scopolamine. The potencies of some deliriant substances are referenced in European mythology.
Dangers of Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens can cause severe emotional, behavioral, cognitive, physical, and psychotic side effects which may lead to withdrawal symptoms and disturbances or corruption of critical bodily systems including the respiratory, cardiovascular, and central nervous systems. Overdose can result in coma or death.
